Stevensons opening in Dr. Jekyll Essay Example for Free

Stevensons opening in Dr. Jekyll Essay The novels Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde, written in 1885, and The Body Snatchers, written in ______ can be seen as novels with a gothic genre as well as mystery stories. They allow the reader to become captivated and absorbed within the text so that they can find out the intriguing nature of the novel, coming across as the story unfolds via clues and hints as to what twists are involved in the plot and characters to unveil the mystery. In the era these novels were written, they were the first in their kind in terms of the gothic genre and as mysterious texts where the turn of events or the characters behaviour was not predictable. They can be considered as novels which look at the darker side of a persons capabilities, this was a new concept to the Victorians in the 19th Century. The book, Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde raises issues of and supports the concept of the dual nature of man, Victorian hypocrisy, the bestial nature of man and the experimentation with science and drugs. The issues within the book created a whole new genre in the nineteenth century for such books including The Body Snatchers and Mary Shelleys Frankenstein, which can also be categorised into this genre. In this essay I will explore Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde as a mystery and a gothic story. I will include historical, social and cultural knowledge of the Victorian era and compare this to The Body Snatchers as both mystery and gothic stories. I will also discuss the meaning behind the stories and the effect it has on the reader. In the Victorian era the concept of a man having or being able to have a dual nature was unthinkable. They did not believe that something like that could be possible, where a person could combine both the good self and the bad self within one individual, this theory was not supported by the beliefs they had, unlike today where the possibility of a split personality is not unknown or unthinkable. This was until a social scientist, James Hogg introduced the concept of the individual psyche = externalisation verses internalisation, the second self. It is from this theory that doppleganger originates from, In Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde Stevenson introduces this theory into 19th Century literature where Dr Jekyll is the good, which from Hoggs theory says is controlled by the right side of the brain and Mr Hyde is the evil character, which according to the theory is controlled by the left side of his brain, it is the one person with the two very different personalities struggling against each other. Stevenson has shown reflected this theory through the characters, Dr Jekyll being good and Mr Hyde being the evil side of the same person. In The Body Snatchers, this concept of the dual nature of a man, Stevenson portrays through Fettes as a young man, who when he awakens after the ordeal as an older man, his evil side comes through while he is under the influence of Dr Macfarlane. The Victorians were very religious people, for centuries it was believed that people had originated or created directly by God, the thought of evolution had never occurred until Darwins theory, the Theory of Evolution in 1859. This shocked the Victorians the thought that they had evolved and where in a sense the descendents of primates, revealing that they were no longer superior beings would have been the biggest shock to people in that era. Darwins theory and beliefs were rejected and associated with both blasmafy and evil. The theory had been rejected and placed to one side, however the thought and the fear associated with Darwins work lived on with the people. Stevenson brings a hint of Darwins theory of evolution to his novel in the form of Hydes character. The bestial nature of a man is portrayed in the evil side, as he is described as ape-like with descriptions of his stance compared to an animal, he stoops like a monkey and he was heard making grunting noises like an animal. These descriptions would drive fear into the reader in the 19th Century as it reflects on Darwins theory of Evolution. In The Body Snatchers, Stevenson has used the bestial nature again to describe the actions of the characters to enhance the evil calious of their actions. As two vultures may swoop upon a dying lamb, Fettes and Mcfarlane were to let loose upon a grave. This description compares the characters actions to animals desecrating corpses, it is descriptive of what they are about to do, which reflects the bestial nature of a man. The movements of Mcfarlane reflect his bestial nature, dart like a serpent, Stevensons use of similes create both atmosphere and clear images of the characters involving the reader. Stevenson uses animal words to describe the charters and their actions which do reflect Darwins theory and would be very significant for a reader in the Victorian era. During the Victorian times, society and a persons social standing was very important, it was highly regarded, with more emphasis put on it than in todays society. Men who demanded respect in society, the upper class or the professional were expected to appear to be gentlemen at all times, they had a certain standard they had to uphold when in public. Noblemen looked the part as they were well bred, upstanding and respectable within their social class with the manners and the educational background to match. This was somewhat different to the activities that took place behind closed doors, where they could be who they really where and fulfil all their whims of drinking, gambling and whatever else they desired regardless of how it would be viewed in society. It was acceptable as it was going on behind closed doors. Noblemen did not practise what they preached and were in fact, hypocrites, a person who pretends to be more virtuous than they really are. The behaviour was known in society, however it was never acknowledged or mentioned that they hid dark secrets. Many critics even suspect that Jekyll and Hyde was a self-administration by Stevenson of his own dark nature. Victorian hypocrisy is an underlying theme Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde, with it being represented by Dr Jekyll I was the first that could thus plod in the public eye with a load of genial respectability, and in the moment, like a schoolboy, strip off these lendings and spring headlong into the sea of liberty. In this quote he is explaining that with Hyde is able to behave how he really wants to, by acting freely to fulfil all desires and not losing any of his social standing or grace. The hypocrisy here lies with the main character, Dr Jekyll represents the respectable nobleman while Mr Hyde reflects Dr Jekylls acts behind closed doors, he is the side that can be ruthless in society as he cannot be recognised as Dr Jekyll and therefore he does not lose any social grace within his social circle or in society. Dr Jekyll makes excuses for what his evil side does, either something cruel and harmful or something appalling by saying It was Hyde, after all and Hyde alone that was guilty. This is Jekylls way of clearing his conscious of all the unsocial crimes he commits. He accepts no responsibility for his own creation, Hyde and is therefore a hypocrite because he wants to have the social standing and respect in society in addition to fulfilling his darker side. Stevenson shows us how he deals with his own hypocrisy by paying for Hydes actions, paying a cheque for trampling on the little girl. Through his actions of payment he is trying to keep his respectable image as an upstanding citizen that he portrays, although it is due to his own guilt of knowing about Hydes actions and not stopping them in some way. In The Body Snatchers, Stevenson has not included this theme of Victorian Hypocrisy so extensively, he touches on it slightly, with Fettes, the young doctor with the respect and social standing who changed himself from being young and irresponsible, who was highly influenced by peer pressure, After a night of turbulent pressures the ordeal changed him for the better, the author is reflecting and portraying the different sides of a person and how man can be influenced especially when it is for the worse. The author also uses, Dr Macfarlane to portray hypocrisy, who breathing, as he did, of wealth and consideration, was a murderer with a black soul underneath, this quotation represents the hypocrisy of the character because in society he is view as a respectable nobleman who is wealthy and is well to do, however he is committing a huge social crime by being a murderer. A character who is well known can commit such crimes and get away with them this represents hypocrisy. Both these novels by Stevenson fit into the gothic genre. This is depicted through the descriptions and images the author creates for the reader to use. Atmosphere and settings are also important for the gothic genre as it is used to set the scenes and allow to reader to visualise the backdrop to where the crimes or the acts of horror are taking place. The settings allow the author to build up tension and suspense for the reader adding to the gothic nature of this genre in the novels. Within the gothic genre are the authors use of setting and scenery, which contribute largely to the essence of it. Both the novels have been set in Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde is set in London, while The Body Snatchers is set in Edinburgh. This has relevance to the genre as a gothic story will usually have the background setting of a major well known city, which the people who read the novel or story will be able to relate to. The concept of Pathetic Fallousy, the weather descriptions are very important to this genre as the settings and the descriptive nature set the scene for what is going to happen. The weather is significant as bad or horrific scenes are associated with bad weather, setting the atmosphere and mood for the events of the story. In Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde the concept of pathetic fallousy provides a major connection in this novel as the gothic atmosphere allows the reader to visually set the scene. The weather references are gothic in nature, descriptions of the rain, the extensive grey skies and clouds. The descriptive detail of the town the abandoned street, the broken down area surrounding them, the atmosphere created allows the reader to experience what it would feel like, the dark nights with the faded distant sounds allow the reader to feel involved. The fog still slept on the wing above the drowned city, where the lamps glimmer like carbuncles; and through the muffle and smother of these fallen clouds. This quote represents the way in which the author engrosses the reader into the text with a very effective atmosphere surrounding detailed description. Stevenson has achieved a very descriptive image of the town, the context important to the concept of pathetic fallousy are the weather words of fog and clouds The Body Snatchers weather descriptions and atmospheric settings are consistent with this genre, they are continuous through out the novel, which reinforces the idea and the gothic nature of the novel at all times to the reader. With the descriptions Stevenson is able to set the scene of the town with the atmosphere enclosing it. There was a thin, bright moonshine, it was bitter cold windy and frosty the town had not yet awakened. This quote tells us that the town was yet to known the events of the night before. When an author uses pathetic fallousy, it allows them to convey future events to the reader as it enables them to connect the mood of the events or actions in the novel with the weather conditions. In gothic genre novels, the worse the weather conditions the worse the event which is or has taken place. If the weather conditions are foggy, stormy, windy and generally unfavourable it makes the reader think that something bad or disturbing mite occur, under a blanket of bad weather. It adds to the readers anticipation, holding there interests with the descriptions allowing the reader to actually feel and visualise the background settings, into the black night. Another part of the gothic genre is the use of descriptive words which creates imagery in the mind of the reader. Stevensons opening in Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde begins with a character description of Hyde. This is a strong opening, shocking the reader from the start, as he is not a pleasant figure. This opening sets the tone for the whole novel, making the reader curious as to who or what that figure is. Questions are put in the mind of reader from the descriptive gothic nature of the novel. Stevenson combined the gothic genre with Darwins theory of Evolution successfully with reference to Hyde. He is numerously referred to as bestial, this is supportive of the theory that humans are superior beings but have evolved from animals. His nature is not human like, he has behaviour void of any emotion to the people he attacks, like an animal. Stevenson uses words relating to his bestial nature to describe particular aspects of him like his voice, enhancing the overall image the reader has created, as husky. It creates imagery of a dog / wolf like creature making Hyde more real to the reader as they can image what he sounds like. Hydes presence made people fear him because of his appearance, when he was sighted he was described as ugly but his features were indescribable but somewhat deformed.

Physiological Effects of MDMA Use :: Health Drugs Essays

Physiological Effects of MDMA Use MDMA has significant cardiovascular effects. This is consistent with its norepinephrine releasing (Johnson et al. 1991; Rothman et al. 2001) and  £\_2 adrenergic agonist (Lavelle et al. 1999) properties. MDMA dose dependently produces robust increases in heart rate and blood pressure (de la Torre et al. 2000a; de la Torre et al. 2000b; Grob et al.). Peak cardiovascular effects occur between 1 and 2 hours after MDMA administration and largely subside within 6 hours of drug administration. A study suggested that the relationship between MDMA dose and cardiovascular effects was supralinear by de la Torre et al. (2000a) who reported unexpectedly high drug exposures (measured as AUCplasma for MDMA) and diastolic blood pressure increases in two volunteers given 150 mg MDMA. While pharmacokinetic data suggest MDMA has nonlinear kinetics, there is no clear evidence of supralinear relationships between dose and blood pressure or heart rate. In fact, there may be less increase in heart rate after higher doses. The tendency toward less heart rate increase with higher dose is consistent with a study using both conscious and anesthetized rats (O'Cain et al. 2000). In this rat study, 3 mg/kg IV MDMA decreased heart rate, while lower doses tended to increase it or leave it unchanged. Studies monitoring blood pressure found significant relationships between MDMA use and blood pressure. In one study, (Vollenweider et al. 1998) involving subjects without a history of MDMA use, one subject experienced hypertensive crisis from a dose typical of recreational use. The correlation of blood pressure is described, "A two way ANOVA for systolic blood pressure revealed a significant main effect of drug [F(1,2) = 41.09; p < 02] and a significant drug x time interaction [F(3,6) = 11.31; p < 007]. Significant changes occurred in the 0 to 75 minutes and 75 to 150 minutes interval (one way ANOVAs). Two way ANOVA for diastolic blood pressure was not significant, but one way ANOVAs showed significant changes in the 75 to 150 minutes and the 150 to 300 minutes interval. Increases were in the range of 10 to 30 mm Hg for systolic blood pressure and 5 to 10 mm Hg for diastolic blood pressure." (Vollenweider et al. 1998 pp.245_246) This study shows a similarity in changes in systolic blood pressure, and a lesser similarity in changes in diastolic blood pressure. The occurrence of hypertensive crisis suggests caution in potential use and study.

Bani Yas Island

United Arab Emirates has a fruitful history since it’s founding as one nation. This nation was originally composed of tribal groups along the territory within the Gulf of Persian the Oman Gulf. This country was converted into Islam in the year 600 A. D. Long before that, there were archaeological evidences that Christianity thrived in this Muslim nation, as shown by many relics proving that claim. One particular island named Bani Yas possesses some of these artifacts that were discovered by many scientists exploring for ancient traces.Moreover, they found out the natural beauty of the island and explored its abundant possibilities to become one of the beautiful tourist spots in the world. After that discovery, many investors were invited to see the potential of the Bani Yas Island. They market the place in its bounty with regards to wildlife and natural resources. According to these people, Bani Yas Island has one of the greatest potential in ecological tourism. The Bani Yas I sland can be located approximately 270 miles west of Abu Dhabi. It was highly regarded as one of the most prominent and greatly honored tribes in the southern part of Arabia.Its place in history began when a person named Yas Bin allowed other tribes to join their clan in order to establish more security and power. Those tribes joined Yas Bin’s tribe to secure their corresponding clans since Yas Bin’s tribe was so powerful then in term s of its military force. Because of that, Bani Yas became the largest tribe in the emirates nation. They made up of approximately 20 clans. They settled on Abu Dhabi on the year 1793. Form this tribe came the present leaders of Abu Dhabi. These people usually spent their summer with other members of the tribe by hunting pearls using boats.When winter comes, they spent their time in the desert with their camels. In addition to this, this tribe was the first to acquire valuable lands that eventually became one of the causes of many disputes of other states. In the year 1833, a prominent faction of the Bani Yas tribe went to Dubai and eventually became the ruler of that place. This leadership lineage continued up to the present day. With respect with the other subsections of the Bani Yas tribe, some clan thrived by fishing and hunting of pearls while others ventured on planting crops. Some tribes focused on the camel business or rearing goats and sheep for living.Other subsections focused on trading goods with other foreign tribes. After a certain period, many archaeologists made an exploration on the supposed location of the former tribe Bani Yas. This exploration was executed in the year 1992 where those who led the site investigation found several discoveries. They found relics of the tools used by the people of the Bani Yas tribe and other important things related to their way of living during their existence. In the year 1993, another excavation was initiated and found more relevant information about the Bani Yas people.They made more than thirty site divisions during the whole exploration process. In some of the sites they explored, they discovered that long before Islam captured the tribe’s religious association, there are traces of a Christian church built in that area. They found relics of a monastery, a clear indication that a church was established before Bani Yas embraced the Islam religion. Furthermore, they also acquired evidences of other cultures in other key sites that might have affected the norms of the people who are living in that era. The rich history of the Bani Yas can also be associated with its natural resources.In terms of its reserves, the place can be said to have plenty of such gifts from nature. The island is proliferated by mountains, which resembles the shape of a cone. Slightly inclined plains along with numerous mangroves on the sides then surround these mountains. With these, a small wharf can be found along the shoreline of the island. The leaders that have this jurisdiction over this territory developed these beautiful sights further. The island also possesses a lot of wildlife diversity within its region. Various species of animals and birds can be found thriving in the island of Bani Yas.Animals like gazelle and Oryx can be found roaming freely in that area. Before, these animals were supposed to be endangered but because of the efforts of the people responsible in the development of the area, these species has grown in number. Other species originated form other countries can also be found living in the Bani Yas island. Moreover, the island eventually became one of the homes of various migratory birds coming form other places on the planet. Birds like flamingos take their shelter in the mangroves that can be found in the island.Others thrive in lagoons and other places that these birds nests. An artificial lake was constructed also and became the primary attraction for numerous types of ducks in the area. Other species of bird s also thrives in the region, making a clear indication of its natural beauty and habitat for wildlife. Pastures are being dominated by many species of deer and other fowls like peacock and others. Attractive insects can also be found in the region enjoying the trees planted in the island of Bani Yas. Such attractive insects are responsible for more beauty in the nature and the balance in the ecosystem.As a result, more beautiful flowers blooms around the island, and fruits are also abundant in the region. From being a desert, the leader occupying the island made wondrous make over on the island, making it more attractive to both animals and even humans who visited the place. He made plantations and fruit bearing trees thriving in the island because of his consistent efforts to develop the area. With regards to the potential of the island as a tourist spot, more consistency the maintenance of the island is needed, knowing that the island was a desert before.Ecotourism is not usual f or regions particularly in the Middle East region but with this island, it would be possible to have a good resort within the region. As far as the implications are concerned, authorities should be alarmed that since the Bani Yas was a desolate place before, they should put more efforts in maintaining the ecosystem they established in the region. As far as the potentials of the island is concerned, there are a lot of prospective in the island of Bani Yas. One of its great features is that it offers tourists with the opportunities to experience safari adventures, and snorkeling.The visitors of this island can experience full recreation with nature and its benefit of full relaxation. Since its development is a clear breakthrough in the field of establishing ecosystems out of a desolated island, this place will surely catch a lot of interests for many people and scholars as well. Another key feature of the island is its richness in cultural heritage with those who once lived there in t he island of Bani Yas. As discussed on the previous statements above, people who lived in this island possessed interesting details on their way of living and their circumstances in life.Relics found on this island would surely catch more attentions on people who are inclined with digging ancient things from the people of the past. The discovery of traces resembling Christian institution in a Muslim-dominated region is another mystery that will attract more scholars and ordinary people in finding facts about the history of the Bani Yas tribe. With regards to its ambience, Bani Yas Island can offer a new outlook for those who lived in the desert for a long time. They will experience living with nature, which is not available on people thriving in the Arabian region.This will definitely give an embrace of new culture in nature’s aspect for people who would like to try living in a serene island with a sustained ecosystem in its surroundings. The developers of this island constru cted different establishments, which will provide more relaxation and recreation on the part of the prospective visitors. One particular structure that was built in the island to cater its visitors is the resort spa. The structure is intended for those who would like to avail of spa services and hotel accommodations.The building consists of more than 60 rooms for tourists who would like to stay in the island. This would offer visitors to avail of this good service while in the island, making it more exciting for many tourists that will be visiting the site. For those who want to conduct camps, group dynamics and other activities, the island can arranged these features in a better setting which is inside nature landscapes and other beautiful sites in the region. For those who love experiencing wildlife adventures, Bani Yas offers this authentic approach in dealing with these demands.Tourists can experience this interaction with animals similar to other safari sites. The developers of the island made a sanctuary for plants and animals to maintain the balance in the ecosystem. Such endangered species already found their homes in the island, a clear indication of the island’s readiness to be a wildlife sanctuary for diversified animal species. The people responsible for the development of this island also built specialized centers that focus on taking care of the plants and animals within the region.This center also conducts researches on how to improve further the current setting of nature in the island. Sustained development is also vital in the work being conducted in the center because this will ensure the good setting of the structures that were built in the island. For birds, they continually place mangroves and other habitats that can attract many species of birds to live in the island. Because of these efforts, many migratory birds have found home on this strategic place. They also established waterways, which are critical in maintaining the presenc e of various animal and bird species in the island.Another big project being established in the Bani Yas Island is the continuous research and development on building structures that will utilize renewable energies as the primary source of energy in the island. This exploration will surely provide more sustainability in the island since the power source will not depend on coals and petrochemicals. It is a given fact that utilizing these as fuels will degrade the air quality of a particular place, making it hazardous to anyone that will be exposed into it.The island developers realize the relevance of maintaining a good ecosystem by utilizing renewable fuels like solar and wind energies. Putting up solar panels in strategic locations and windmills in the island are the priorities of the developers of the island with regards to the power plant constructions are concerned. Once these renewable energy factories are established in the region, there will be a lot more people who will be i nterested in visiting the place. This would also take its place in the history as one of the beautiful places in the world utilizing green energies.The world’s recognition will also be given to the island for its effort in utilizing clean energy sources and being one of the few tourist destinations that implemented such policies in the field of energy utilization. Furthermore, there are far more expansion that should be emphasized as far as the Bani Yas Island is concerned. One particular highlight in the island is its continuing expansion in its beach resorts. This would open more spaces available for people who would want to enjoy the scenery of the beachfronts.Another development that must be underlined is its continuous expansion on the wildlife parks that will provide more rooms for other animals to roam around the area. Such expansion would encourage proliferation of more animals as well as on other species. Another highlight on the island is the establishment of its ow n safari park where various animals can interact with people who wish them to see these creatures in motion. A farm was also established and will continue to expand this structure for a more sustainable energy source for the island.In addition to that, the development of more hotel buildings which can be classified as one of the best in the Asian region are being prioritized to accommodate the needs of the tourists and even other Arab people. These would also attract prominent individuals to visit the island because of the best hotels that are being established in the Bani Yas island. Commercial establishments are also being developed and expanded like shopping malls, fine dining restaurants, campsites, and other amenities that they can offer to the people.Putting up of residential homes is also being developed in the region to provide for those who would like to stay near the beautiful expanse of the island. Such townhouses, condominiums will surely add more attraction to other pro minent people who would choose to stay in the region. For those who are fond with the excavation and explorations of ancient articles, the island also continue to increase its archaeological sites to serve the needs of those who are venturing with the study of the island’s heritage.Current development in the Bani Yas Island includes the start of wind turbine system that provides power in the area. Even though this may not be enough to shoulder the whole energy needs of the island, the developers are looking for more of these implementation to fulfill their target of having a one hundred percent dependence on the renewable energy factories. Another recent development is that the island will be open to daily visitors for them to witness the beauty of this island by the year 2009(Gulfnews, 2008). Up to now, the island is open only for hotel guests and not for just spectators or island visits only.The development of the island of Bani Yas will also generate more than 60,000 emplo yment opportunities once the operation started in full. The corresponding groups are also prioritizing coastal development in the island by carefully examining the topography of the area. This group of people provided a scale model which simulates the actual scenario of what would it be once the developed coastal shorelines are placed. They made physical modeling and wave simulation in studying the appropriate construction of the coastal lines around the island.The groups are placing a mixture of soil and textile material in putting up developments in the shorelines. According to the concerned group, this mixture of materials is better than using pure concrete in the coastal line construction in terms of its flexibility in the waves being thrown by the bodies of water surrounding the Bani Yas island. With regards to the evaluation of the benefits of the island as a future destination of many nature lovers and prominent people, it can be said that Bani Yas has the full potential in t erms of its nature expanse and established structures.Benefits can be enumerated in several ways. One of the benefits that can be provided by this island is the fact that they made a legacy for the next Arab generation. With the sustained development of the region, Bani Yas will continue to inspire other people to venture on creating their own plantation and wildlife park in the middle of a desert. Before, it was impossible to put up diversified species of plants and animals to thrive in a desert island because of its limitation in terms of water availability and soil composition.Bani Yas project made the impossible to be possible and created a lot of avenues in research about taking care of nature and its resources. Another great benefit of this project is on the tourism industry of the country. With the beauty being shown in the islands, there will be high demand for local and foreign visitors to go to Bani Yas Island. The investments done by the leader of the region will surely b ring good returns in the future considering the high potential in tourism and real state.In addition to that, the advantage of having revenues in tourism industry will open more jobs for local residents and other nationalities as well. In the near future, more profits will be enjoyed through sustained development of the island. More than pecuniary matters, the island will contribute a lot to the advocacies of many nations today to use clean energies in supplying power in their respective states. Bani Yas can serve as a role model for other communities in implementing such actions to initiate the usage of renewable sources of energy like solar and wind energy.

Largest Cities Throughout History

In order to understand how civilizations have evolved over time, its useful to look at population growth and decline in different geographic areas.   Tertius Chandlers compilation of the population of cities throughout history,  Four Thousand Years of Urban Growth: An Historical Census  uses a wide variety of  historical sources to locate approximate populations for the worlds largest cities since 3100 BCE. Its a daunting task to try to calculate how many people lived in urban centers prior to recorded history. Even though the Romans were the first to conduct a census, requiring every Roman man to register every five years, other societies were not as diligent about tracking their populations. Widespread plagues, natural disasters with a large loss of life and wars that decimated societies (from both the aggressor and the conquered points of view)  often provide unfortunate clues to historians for a given populations size.   But with few written records, and very little uniformity among societies that may be hundreds of miles apart, trying to determine whether Chinas pre-modern era cities were more populous than Indias, for instance, is no easy task. Counting Pre-Census Population Growth The challenge for Chandler and other historians is the lack of formal census-taking before the 18th century. His approach was to look at smaller pieces of data to try to create a clear picture of populations. This included examining travelers estimates, data on the numbers of households within cities, the numbers of food wagons arriving in cities and the size of each city or states military. He looked at church records  and the loss of lives in disasters. Many of the figures  Chandler presented can only be considered rough approximations of the urban population, but most  include the city and surrounding suburban or urbanized area. What follows is a list of the largest city at each point in history since 3100 BCE.  It lacks population data for many cities but does provide a list of the largest cities throughout time. By looking at the first and second lines of the table, we see that Memphis remained the largest city in the world from at least 3100 BCE to 2240 BCE when Akkad claimed the title. City Year Became No. 1 Population Memphis, Egypt 3100 BCE Well over 30,000 Akkad, Babylonia (Iraq) 2240 Lagash, Babylonia (Iraq) 2075 Ur, Babylonia (Iraq) 2030 BCE 65,000 Thebes, Egypt 1980 Babylon, Babylonia (Iraq) 1770 Avaris, Egypt 1670 Nineveh, Assyria (Iraq) 668 Alexandria, Egypt 320 Pataliputra, India 300 Xian, China 195 BCE 400,000 Rome 25 BCE 450,000 Constantinople 340 CE 400,000 Istanbul CE Baghdad 775 CE first over 1 million Hangzhou, China 1180 255,000 Beijing, China 1425- 1500 1.27 million London, United Kingdom 1825-1900 first over 5 million New York 1925-1950 first over 10 million Tokyo 1965-1975 first over 20 million Here are the top cities by population from the year 1900: Name Population London 6.48 million New York 4.24 million Paris 3.33 million Berlin 2.7 million Chicago 1.71 million Vienna 1.7 million Tokyo 1.5 million St. Petersburg, Russia 1.439 million Manchester, UK 1.435 million Philadelphia 1.42 million And here are the top 10 cities by population for the year 1950 Name Population New York 12.5 million London 8.9 million Tokyo 7 million Paris 5.9 million Shanghai 5.4 million Moscow 5.1 million Buenos Aires 5 million Chicago 4.9 million Ruhr, Germany 4.9 million Kolkata, India 4.8 million In the modern era, its much easier to track things like birth, death and marriage certificates, especially in countries that conduct census surveys on a regular basis. But its fascinating to consider how large cities grew and shrunk before there were means to measure them.